Indus Valley Civilization PPT Download

Indus Valley Civilization Ppt Download

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Unraveling the Mysteries of the Indus Valley Civilization

The Indus Valley Civilization, one of the world’s oldest urban societies, remains a source of fascination and intrigue for historians, archaeologists, and curious minds alike. Flourishing in the valleys of the Indus River in what is now modern-day Pakistan and northwest India, this ancient civilization provides a window into a remarkable period of human history. In this article, we will delve into the world of the Indus Valley Civilization, exploring its origins, achievements, and enduring mysteries that continue to captivate scholars.

Ancient Roots and Discoveries

The history of India and Pakistan begins with the birth of the Indus Valley Civilization, also known as the Harappan Civilization. It emerged around 3300 BCE and thrived until approximately 1300 BCE, making it one of the earliest urban societies. The civilization’s name derives from its first excavated site, Harappa, which was unearthed in 1921 by archaeologist Dayaram Sahni. Its contemporary, Mohenjo-Daro, was discovered by R.D. Banerjee in 1922. These initial findings opened a door to a world previously unknown to modern humanity.
Example: Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro were the first major cities of the Indus Valley Civilization to be excavated, revealing the existence of this ancient civilization.

Urban Planning and Architecture

One of the most striking aspects of the Indus Valley Civilization is its remarkable urban planning and architecture. Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, the two largest cities, were built with a level of sophistication and advancement not seen in other contemporary civilizations, such as Egypt or Mesopotamia.
The cities were designed on a grid system with well-laid-out streets and drainage systems. They featured two distinct parts: a citadel, possibly occupied by the ruling class, and a lower town where the common people lived. The Great Bath, a large public bathing pool, was a central feature in many cities. These early urban planners even had their version of granaries, 2-storied houses made of burnt bricks, closed drainage lines, and an efficient stormwater and wastewater management system.
Example: The Great Bath in Mohenjo-Daro, a large public bathing pool made of well-laid bricks and featuring a sophisticated drainage system, showcases the advanced architectural and engineering skills of the Indus people.

Agriculture and Trade

Agriculture was the backbone of the Indus Valley Civilization. The fertile floodplains of the Indus River allowed for the cultivation of various crops, including wheat, barley, cotton, ragi, dates, and peas. Remarkably, the Indus people were the earliest to cultivate cotton.
Trade played a pivotal role in the life of the Indus people. The presence of numerous seals, a uniform script, and regulated weights and measures suggest extensive trade networks. They engaged in the trade of stone, metal, shell, and other commodities, and some of their artifacts have been found as far away as Mesopotamia, suggesting a global reach.
Example: The discovery of granaries and evidence of crop cultivation, including wheat, barley, and cotton, at various Indus Valley sites indicates the significance of agriculture in their society. Additionally, the presence of seals and artifacts in Mesopotamia suggests extensive trade networks.

Religion and Artistic Expression

The religious beliefs of the Indus Valley Civilization are another area of fascination. While much about their religion remains enigmatic, we do have some clues. Terracotta figurines of women suggest a reverence for fertility, with some portraying plants growing from the womb—a symbolism akin to the Egyptian worship of the Nile goddess Isis.
A male deity, often referred to as the “Pashupati Seal,” has three horned heads and is surrounded by animals like elephants and tigers. Other symbols like phalluses and female sex organs made of stone hint at a focus on fertility worship.
Artistic expression thrived in the form of pottery, sculpture, and jewelry. The famous “Dancing Girl” statuette from Mohenjo-Daro and the “Priest-King” figure are exquisite examples of their artistic prowess.
Example: The “Pashupati Seal” found in Mohenjo-Daro, depicting a deity with three horned heads surrounded by animals, provides a glimpse into the religious beliefs and artistic expression of the Indus people. The “Dancing Girl” statuette and the “Priest-King” figure are notable examples of their artistic achievements.

The Enigma of Decline

Despite the incredible achievements of the Indus Valley Civilization, its decline remains one of history’s great mysteries. Theories abound, but none offer a definitive answer. Some suggest that Indo-European invaders, known as the Aryans, played a role, but this theory has been challenged. Natural factors like geological disturbances, shifts in river courses, changing rainfall patterns, and floods are also considered as possible causes.
What is clear is that the civilization did not disappear overnight. It gradually declined, with people moving eastward and cities being abandoned. The script and trade also declined, marking the end of an era.
Example: The decline of the Indus Valley Civilization is still debated among scholars. Some theories suggest that the arrival of Indo-European invaders, the Aryans, may have contributed, while others point to natural factors like geological disturbances and changing river courses.

Legacy and Rediscovery

The legacy of the Indus Valley Civilization lives on through the ruins and artifacts that continue to be uncovered by archaeologists. While the script remains undeciphered, and many mysteries persist, the civilization’s impact on subsequent cultures is evident.
Today, as we uncover more about this ancient civilization, we gain valuable insights into the complexities of human history and the enduring spirit of curiosity that drives us to unlock the secrets of our past. The Indus Valley Civilization, with its extraordinary achievements and unresolved enigmas, stands as a testament to the ingenuity and resilience of our ancestors.
Example: The legacy of the Indus Valley Civilization is preserved in the ongoing archaeological excavations, which uncover new artifacts and insights. These discoveries continue to captivate our interest and provide valuable historical knowledge about this ancient civilization.

IVC: INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

Here’s a simplified table with examples of important facts about the Harappan civilization:

Fact	Example
Name Origin	Named after Harappa, first excavated in 1921 by Dayaram Sahni.
Size Comparison	Larger than ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia civilizations.
Northern-Most Site	Manda (Jammu-Kashmir)
Southern-Most Site	Daimabad (Maharashtra)
Eastern-Most Site	Alamgirpur (Uttar Pradesh)
Western-Most Site	Sutkagendor (Pakistan-Iran border)

These examples provide key information about the Harappan civilization’s name origin and the locations of its northern, southern, eastern, and western sites.

Here’s a table summarizing the key information about the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) with examples:

Aspect	Details and Examples
Time Period	– IVC was established around 3300 BC.
	– It flourished between 2600 BC and 1900 BC (Mature IVC).
	– It started declining around 1900 BC and disappeared around 1400 BC.
Name	– Also known as the Harappan Civilization.
	– Named after the first excavated city, Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan).
Geographic Extent	– Covered regions including Punjab, Sindh, Baluchistan, Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Western Uttar Pradesh.
	– Extended from Sutkagengor (in Baluchistan) in the West to Alamgirpur (Western UP) in the East.
	– Stretched from Mandu (Jammu) in the North to Daimabad (Ahmednagar, Maharashtra) in the South.
	– Some IVC sites have also been found as far away as Afghanistan and Turkmenistan.
Discovery	– Excavations in the Indus Valley by the Archaeological Department of India in the 1920s.
	– Ruins of two old cities, Mohenjodaro and Harappa, were unearthed.
	– John Marshall, Director-General of the ASI, announced the discovery of this civilization in 1924.
Importance	– One of the major civilizations of the ancient world.
	– Forms the backbone of India’s historical heritage.
	– Important topic for exams like the IAS (Indian Administrative Service) Exam.
Pre-Harappan Civilization	– Evidence of cotton cultivation found in Mehrgarh, Pakistan, which is considered part of the pre-Harappan civilization.

This table provides a concise summary of the key points related to the Indus Valley Civilization, including its time period, geographic extent, name, discovery, and historical significance.

Indus Valley Civilization Important Sites

In India:

- Kalibangan (Rajasthan)
- Lothal
- Dholavira
- Rangpur
- Surkotda (Gujarat)
- Banawali (Haryana)
- Ropar (Punjab)

In Pakistan:

- Harappa (on river Ravi)
- Mohenjodaro (on the Indus River in Sindh)
- Chanhudaro (in Sindh)

Discovery:

The civilization was first discovered during an excavation campaign under Sir John Hubert Marshall in 1921–22 at Harappa following the discovery of seals by J Fleet.
Harappan ruins were discovered by Marshall, Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni, and Madho Sarup Vats.
Mohenjodaro ruins were excavated for the first time by R.D. Banerjee, E. J. H. MacKay, and Marshall.

Characteristics of Indus Valley Civilization:

The Indus Valley cities show a level of sophistication and advancement not seen in other contemporary civilizations.
Most cities had similar patterns, with a citadel and a lower town.
Most cities had a Great Bath.
Notable features included granaries, 2-storied houses made of burnt bricks, closed drainage lines, excellent stormwater and wastewater management systems, weights for measurements, toys, pottery, etc.
A large number of seals with inscriptions have been discovered.

Economy and Agriculture:

Agriculture was the most important occupation, and they were the first to cultivate cotton.
Domesticated animals included sheep, goats, and pigs.
Crops grown included wheat, barley, cotton, ragi, dates, and peas.
Trade was conducted with the Sumerians.
Metalworking included copper, bronze, tin, and lead products, with gold and silver also known. Iron was not used.

Religion and Artifacts:

No structures like temples or palaces have been found.
The people worshipped male and female deities, with a famous ‘Pashupati Seal’ depicting a three-eyed figure, possibly an early form of Lord Shiva.
Red pottery designed in black, faience jewelry, and vessels were crafted.
The civilization was advanced in making artworks, with notable artifacts like the ‘Dancing Girl’ statuette and the figure of a bearded Priest-King.

Other Notable Facts:

Lothal was a dockyard.
Disposal of the dead was through burial in wooden coffins, later transitioning to cremation in urns.
The Indus Valley script remains undeciphered.

Table of Important Sites of Indus Valley Civilization

Important Sites of Indus Valley Civilization (IVC)
Site	Excavated by	Location	Important Findings
Harappa	Daya Ram Sahini in 1921	Situated on the bank of river Ravi in Montgomery district of Punjab (Pakistan).	Sandstone statues of Human Anatomy Granaries Bullock carts
Mohenjodaro (Mound of Dead)	R.D Banerjee in 1922	Situated on the Bank of River Indus in Larkana district of Punjab (Pakistan).	Great bath Granary Bronze dancing girl Seal of Pasupathi Mahadeva Steatite statue of Beard man A piece of woven cotton
Sutkagendor	Stein in 1929	In southwestern Balochistan province, Pakistan on the Dast river	A trading point between Harappa and Babylon
Chanhudaro	N.G Majumdar in 1931	Sindh on the Indus River	Bead makers shop Footprint of a dog chasing a cat
Amri	N.G Majumdar in 1935	On the bank of the Indus river	Antelope evidence
Kalibangan	Ghose in 1953	Rajasthan on the bank of the Ghaggar River	Fire altar Camel bones Wooden plough
Lothal	R.Rao in 1953	Gujarat on the Bhogva River near the Gulf of Cambay	First manmade port Dockyard Rice husk Fire altars Chess playing
Surkotada	J.P Joshi in 1964	Gujarat	Bones of horses. Beads.
Banawali	R.S Bisht in 1974	Hisar district of Haryana	Beads Barley Evidence of both pre-Harappan and Harappan culture
Dholavira	R.S Bisht in 1985	Gujarat in Rann of Kachchh	Water harnessing system Water reservoir

Phases of Indus Valley Civilization

Here’s a table summarizing the phases of the Indus Valley Civilization:

Phase	Time Period	Characteristics and Examples
Early Harappan Phase	3300 to 2600 BCE	– Related to the Hakra Phase in the Ghaggar-Hakra River Valley.
		– Early examples of the Indus script date back to 3000 BC.
		– Centralized authority and an increasingly urban quality of life.
		– Evidence of crop cultivation, including wheat, barley, and more.
		– Kot Diji represents the phase leading up to the Mature Harappan Phase.
Mature Harappan Phase	2600 to 1900 BCE	– Transformation of early Harappan communities into large urban centers like Harappa and Mohenjodaro.
		– Flourishing of the Indus Valley Civilization.
Late Harappan Phase	1900 to 1300 BCE	– Signs of a gradual decline in the civilization starting around 1800 BC.
		– By 1700 BC, most of the cities were abandoned.
		– Persistence of Late Harappan culture till 1000-900 BC.

Early Harappan Phase (3300-2600 BCE):

- Related to the Hakra Phase in the Ghaggar-Hakra River Valley.
- Early examples of the Indus script date back to 3000 BC.
- Characterized by centralized authority and an increasingly urban quality of life.
- Establishment of trade networks and evidence of crop cultivation, including peas, sesame seeds, dates, and cotton.
- Kot Diji represents the phase leading up to the Mature Harappan Phase.

Mature Harappan Phase (2600-1900 BCE):

- By 2600 BC, the Indus Valley Civilization had reached maturity.
- Early Harappan communities transformed into large urban centers, such as Harappa and Mohenjodaro in Pakistan and Lothal in India.

Late Harappan Phase (1900-1300 BCE):

- Signs of a gradual decline in the Indus River Valley Civilization began around 1800 BC.
- By 1700 BC, most of the cities were abandoned.
- Elements of the Ancient Indus Valley Civilization can be seen in later cultures.
- Archaeological data indicates the persistence of the Late Harappan culture until 1000-900 BC.

Town Planning and Structures in the Harappan Civilization:

The Harappan culture was known for its well-organized town planning.
Harappa and Mohenjodaro had citadels or acropolises, possibly inhabited by the ruling class.
Below the citadel in each city was a lower town with brick houses for common people.
Cities were laid out in a grid system, showing careful urban planning.
Granaries were significant structures in Harappan cities.
Unlike contemporary Egyptian buildings that used dried bricks, Harappan cities used burnt bricks, which contributed to their durability.
The drainage system in Mohenjodaro was highly advanced and efficient.
Most houses, whether large or small, had their courtyards and bathrooms.
In Kalibangan, many houses had their own wells for water supply.
Some Harappan settlements, like Dholavira and Lothal in Gujarat, were entirely fortified, with walls separating sections within the town for added security.

Agriculture in the Harappan Civilization:

Harappan villages were typically located near floodplains, ensuring sufficient food production.
Crops grown included wheat, barley, rai (mustard), peas, sesame, lentils, chickpeas, and mustard.
Some millets were also found in sites in Gujarat, but rice was relatively rare.
The Indus people were among the earliest to cultivate cotton.
While evidence of grain indicates agriculture, specific agricultural practices are harder to reconstruct.
Seals and terracotta sculptures suggest the knowledge and use of bulls, likely employed for Ploughing.
Many Harappan sites were in semi-arid regions, suggesting the need for irrigation in agriculture.
Traces of canals have been discovered at the Harappan site of Shortughai in Afghanistan, although not in Punjab or Sindh.
In addition to agriculture, the Harappans also engaged in large-scale animal husbandry.
Limited evidence of horses exists, with a superficial level found in Mohenjodaro and a doubtful terracotta figurine from Lothal. The Harappan culture was not centered around horses.

Economy of the Indus Valley Civilization:

Trade played a vital role in the life of the Indus people, as evidenced by numerous seals, a uniform script, and regulated weights and measures over a wide area.
Trade extended to various goods, including stone, metal, and shell products.
The economy operated on a barter system, with no usage of metal money.
Navigation was practiced along the coast of the Arabian Sea, indicating maritime trade.
A trading colony was established in northern Afghanistan, facilitating trade with Central Asia.
Commerce was conducted with regions in the land of the Tigris and the Euphrates, possibly connecting with Mesopotamia.
Long-distance trade in lapis lazuli, a blue semi-precious stone, may have contributed to the social prestige of the ruling class.

Crafts in the Indus Valley Civilization:

The Harappans were skilled in the manufacturing and use of bronze.
Copper was sourced from the Khetri copper mines in Rajasthan, while tin was likely obtained from Afghanistan, which are key components of bronze.
Textile impressions have been discovered on several objects, indicating advanced knowledge of textiles.
Large brick structures suggest that brick-laying was an important craft, implying the presence of a class of skilled masons.
The Harappans practiced various crafts, including boat-making, bead-making, and seal-making. Terracotta manufacturing was also significant.
Goldsmiths crafted jewelry using silver, gold, and precious stones.
The potter’s wheel was widely used, and the Harappans produced distinctive glossy and shiny pottery.

Institutions in the Indus Valley Civilization:

Very few written materials have been discovered in the Indus Valley, and the Indus script remains undeciphered, leading to difficulties in understanding the civilization’s state and institutions.
No temples have been found at any Harappan sites, suggesting that the possibility of priests ruling Harappa can be ruled out.
Harappa was possibly ruled by a class of merchants, but the exact nature of governance remains uncertain.
Archaeological records do not provide immediate answers regarding the center of power or depictions of people in power.

1. Some archaeologists suggest that Harappan society had no rulers, and all individuals enjoyed equal status.
2. Another theory proposes that there was no single ruler but rather a number of rulers representing each of the urban centers, indicating a decentralized system of governance.

Religion in the Indus Valley Civilization:

Numerous terracotta figurines of women have been discovered in Harappa, some depicting plants growing out of the embryo of a woman. This suggests that the Harappans viewed the earth as a fertility goddess and worshipped her, akin to how the Egyptians revered the Nile goddess Isis.
A male deity is represented on a seal with three horned heads, depicted in the sitting posture of a yogi. This god is surrounded by an elephant, a tiger, a rhinoceros, and has a buffalo below his throne, with two deer at his feet. This god is identified as Pushupati Mahadeva.
Stone symbols of phalluses and female sex organs have been found, indicating a focus on fertility and possibly a form of fertility worship.
The people of the Indus region also worshipped trees and animals, with the one-horned unicorn (possibly the rhinoceros) and the humped bull being among the most important.
Amulets, believed to have had protective or symbolic significance, have been discovered in large numbers, suggesting a belief in the power of charms and talismans.

Decline of the Indus Valley Civilization:

The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) experienced a decline around 1800 BCE, but the exact reasons for its demise are still debated.
One theory suggests that Indo-European tribes, known as Aryans, invaded and conquered the IVC. However, later cultural elements suggest that the civilization did not disappear suddenly due to an invasion.
Many scholars believe that natural factors played a significant role in the decline of the IVC:
1. Geological and climatic factors, such as tectonic disturbances leading to earthquakes and changes in river courses, possibly drying them up, could have contributed.
2. Shifts in rainfall patterns and dramatic shifts in river courses might have caused floods in food-producing areas.
A combination of these natural causes is believed to have led to the gradual collapse of the IVC.
The decline of the Indus Valley Civilization did not happen abruptly but rather gradually. People moved eastwards, cities were abandoned, and there was a decline in writing and trade.
The theory of Aryan invasion, once suggested by Mortimer Wheeler, has been debunked.
Robert Raikes proposed that tectonic movements and floods were responsible for the decline.
Other causes mentioned include a drying up of the rivers, deforestation, and destruction of the natural environment. It is likely that several factors contributed to the decline of the civilization.
New cities emerged in the region about 1400 years later, signifying a significant gap between the decline of the IVC and the rise of new settlements.

Table of Indus Valley Civilization FINDINGS

SITE (River)	FINDINGS
Harappa (River Name – Ravi)	Granaries, Red sandstone Male torso, Stone symbols of Lingam and Yoni, Painted pottery, Mother Goddess, Dice
Mohenjodaro	Discovered by R D Banerjee in 1922. Largest site of Indus civilization, Post cremation burial, Great Granary, Great Bath (largest building of civilization), Pasupathi seal, Bronze dancing girl.
Chanhudaro (River Name – Indus)	Discovered by N G Mazumdar in 1931. Inkpot, Lipstick, Metal workers, Shell-ornament makers, and bead makers shop, dog’s paw imprint on brick, Terracotta model of bullock cart, Bronze toy cart.
Lothal (River Name – Bhogava)	Discovered by S Rao in 1953. Important naval trade site, Cremation site, Dockyard, Granaries, Rice husk, Double burial (male-female together)
Dholavira (River Name – Luni)	Discovered by R Bisht in 1985. Unique water harnessing system and its stormwater drainage system, only site divided into 3 parts, Megalithic stone circle.
Surkotada (River Name – Gujrat)	Discovered – S Joshi (1964). The only site with horse remains, Oval grave, Pot burials, Soldiers sign on the potsherd
Kalibangan (River Name – Ghaggar)	Discovered – A Ghosh. Bangle factory, Ploughed field surface, Camel bones, Fire altars.

Table of IVC SITES

Here’s a table summarizing the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) sites in different states of India along with notable findings and characteristics:

State	IVC Sites	Notable Findings and Characteristics
Haryana (India)	– Banawali (Ghaggar)	– Oval-shaped settlement – Lack of systematic drainage system – Barley grains – Lapis Lazuli – Fire altars – Only city with radial streets.
	– Rakhigarhi (Ghaggar)	– Largest Indian site of the Indus Valley Civilization – Granary – Cemetery – Drains – Terracotta bricks
	– Bhagwanpura	– (Specific findings not mentioned in the provided text)
Punjab (India)	– Ropar (Sutlej)	– Dog buried with human in oval pit burials – Copper axe – First site to be excavated after independence
Uttar Pradesh (India)	– Alamgirpur (Yamuna)	– Broken copper blade – Ceramic items – Impression of cloth on a trough
	– Manpur	– (Specific findings not mentioned in the provided text)
	– Bargaon	– (Specific findings not mentioned in the provided text)
	– Hulas	– (Specific findings not mentioned in the provided text)
	– Sanauli	– (Specific findings not mentioned in the provided text)
Maharashtra (India)	– Daimabad (Pravara)	– Bronze images (charioteer with chariot, ox, elephant, and rhinoceros)

Table of IMPORTANT FEATURES

IVC	IMPORTANT FEATURES
TOWN PLANNING AND STRUCTURES	The towns were in a rectangular grid pattern with roads at right angles. Used burnt mud bricks joined with gypsum mortar (contemporary Egypt dried bricks were used). The city was divided into two parts, the city on a raised platform, Known as the Upper Citadel & the lower town known as the Lower Citadel (working-class quarters) Most buildings have private wells and properly ventilated bathrooms. Do not have large monumental structures such as temples or palaces for rulers, unlike Egyptian and Mesopotamian Civilisations. Advanced drainage system.
AGRICULTURE	Main crops: Two types of Wheat and Barley. Evidence of cultivation of rice in Lothal and Rangpur (Gujarat) only. Other crops: Dates, mustard, sesamum, cotton, rai, peas, etc. First to produce cotton in the world so Greeks called them Sindon. Used animal-drawn wooden plough, and stone sickles. Gabarbands or Nalas enclosed by dams were found but channel or canal irrigation was probably not practised Produced sufficient food grains and cereals were received as taxes from peasants and stored in granaries for wages and emergencies same as in Mesopotamia.
DOMESTICATION OF ANIMALS	Oxen, buffaloes, goats, sheep, and pigs, dogs, cats, asses, and camels were domesticated. Humped bulls were favored by the Harappans. Not horse-centered but evidenced in Surkotada, Mohenjodaro, and Lothal. The lion was not known. Elephants and Rhinoceros (Amari) were well known.
TECHNOLOGY AND CRAFT	This is known as the first urbanization in India. Along with stone, but were well acquainted with bronze (occasionally mixed arsenic with copper instead of tin). As neither tin nor copper was easily available, bronze tools did not abound in the region. Iron was not known to the people. Important crafts: spinning (Spindle whorls), bricklaying, boat-making, seal making, terracotta manufacturing (potter’s wheel), goldsmiths, bead making. They were aware of the use of the wheel.
TRADE AND COMMERCE	Trade importance was supported by Granaries, seals, a uniform script, and regulated weights and measures. Engages in inter-regional as well as foreign trade. Sumerian texts refer to trade relations with Meluha ie. the ancient name was given to the Indus region & mention 2 intermediate trading stations- Dilmun (Bahrain) & Makan (Makran coast). Used boats and bullock carts for transportation. Carried exchanges through a barter system. IMPORT: Gold, Silver, Copper, Tin, Jade, Steatite EXPORTS: Agricultural products, cotton goods, terracotta figurines, a bead from Chanhudaro, conch shells from Lothal, ivory products, and copper.
SOCIAL ORGANIZATION	Hierarchy in urban habitation. Merchants and priests were important classes of this period Harappans were fashion-conscious. Different hairstyles and wearing beards were popular. The use of cosmetics was common (Cinnabar, lipstick, and collyrium) Necklaces, fillets, armlets, and finger rings were worn by both men and women but bangles, girdles, anklets, and earrings were worn by women only. Beads were made from gold, copper, bronze, cornelian, quartz, steatite, lapis lazuli, etc. – naturalistic animal models as pin-heads and beads. Fishing, hunting, and bullfighting were pastimes.
POLITY	The central authority may have contributed to uniform culture. No clear idea of an organized force or standing army. Priests did not rule in Harappa as they did in the cities of lower Mesopotamia but were possibly ruled by a class of merchants.
RELIGIOUS PRACTICES	Seal-male deity Pashupati Mahadeva (proto-siva)-has three-horned heads, and is represented in the sitting posture of a yogi, with one leg placed above the other surrounded by an elephant, a tiger, a rhinoceros, and below his throne there is a buffalo, and at his feet two deer. Prevalence of the Phallus (lingam) and Yoni worship. The Rig Veda speaks of non-Aryan people who were phallus worshippers. The chief female deity was the mother Goddess. They also worshiped fire. The people of the Indus region also worshipped trees (ex: pipal) and animals (unicorns, humped bulls, etc). Harappans believed in ghosts and evil forces and, therefore, they used amulets against them.
SCRIPT	The oldest script in the Indian sub-continent. Pictographic script (yet to be deciphered). The writing was boustrophedon -writing right to left in one line & then left to right in the next line.
POTTERY	Plain pottery is more common than painted ware is generally of red clay, and is uniformly sturdy and well-baked. The painted pottery is also known as Red and Black Pottery as it used red colour to paint the background and glossy black paint was used to draw designs and figures on the red background. Trees, birds, animal figures, and geometrical patterns were the recurring themes of the paintings. Most of the potteries are wheel-made. Rare polychrome pottery has also been found (geometric patterns in red, black, green, rarely white and yellow).
SEALS AND SEALINGS	Most of the seals are square plaque (2×2 square inches) made mostly from Steatite. Seals had an animal (no Cow) or human figure on one side and an inscription on the opposite side or inscriptions on both sides. Seals were primarily used for commercial purposes, as amulets, as a form of identification, and for educational purposes as well. Seals with symbols similar to the ‘Swastika’ design have also been found. Types – Square OR Rectangular.
ART	BRONZE CASTING: Practiced on a wide scale using the ‘lost wax’ technique or Cire Perdue. They mainly consist of human and animal figures. Example: ‘Dancing Girl’. She stands in a ‘Tribhanga’ dancing posture. STONE STATUES: Bearded man– (found in Mohenjo-daro and made of Steatite), interpreted as a priest Red sandstone – a figure of a male torso (found in Harappa and made of Red sandstone). TERRACOTTA FIGURES Found are less in number and crude in shape and form. Examples: Mother Goddess, mask of horned deity, toys, etc
DECLINE	After 2000 BC IVC declined & gradually faded away. Possible reasons – declined soil fertility, depression in the land, Aryans invasion, a decline of trade, Floods, earthquakes, etc. The most acceptable reason is ecological imbalance.

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